Glossary articles
Divided government definition
Divided government means party control is split between the president and Congress. One party holds the presidency, while the other holds the majority in at least one chamber. Congress has two chambers, the US House and the US Senate. Voters elect the president and members of Congress separately, so the presidency and the two chambers can end up under the control of different parties.
Citizens United v. FEC definition
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (FEC) is a 2010 Supreme Court case that struck down federal limits on independent expenditures by corporations and labor unions. An independent expenditure is money spent on ads or other messages that support or oppose a candidate, without coordination with that candidate's campaign.A nonprofit, Citizens United, made a film about Hillary Clinton in 2008 while she was running for president. It wanted to put the film on cable on-demand right before the primaries.Federal law barred corporations from paying for campaign ads that close to an election. Citizens United said the movie was journalism, not a campaign ad. The FEC said it was a campaign ad. Citizens United sued rather than risk civil and criminal penalties.The Supreme Court could have answered the narrow question: does this one movie violate campaign finance law? It didn't. Instead, it threw out the whole rule, saying political spending is speech and the government cannot stop a corporation or a union from spending its own money to support or oppose a candidate.
Campaign contributions definition
A campaign contribution is anything of value given, loaned, or advanced to influence a federal election. The Federal Election Commission (FEC) regulates contributions to candidates for president, the US Senate, and the US House. Contributions include money, loans, and in-kind goods or services given free or below market value.A campaign may not take money from a corporation, labor organization, or national bank's own funds, though those groups may set up a separate political action committee (PAC) that can make contributions. Campaigns also may not take money from federal government contractors or foreign nationals, and no one may give using another person's name.Campaigns raise and spend contributions through a committee, which reports to the FEC. Committees must list the name, address, occupation, and employer of anyone who gives more than $200 during an election cycle. The FEC posts those reports on its website within 48 hours of receiving them.
Super PAC definition
A super PAC is a type of political action committee (PAC) that can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money to support or oppose federal candidates, but can’t give money directly to their campaigns. The Federal Election Commission (FEC), the agency that enforces federal campaign finance law, calls these groups “independent expenditure-only political committees.”Super PACs began in 2010. That year, a federal appeals court ruled in SpeechNow.org v. FEC that limits on contributions to groups making only “independent expenditures” were unconstitutional.
Dark money definition
Dark money is an informal term for money spent on political advertising by groups that do not publicly identify their donors. These groups report certain election spending to the Federal Election Commission (FEC), so the public can see what they bought. The public cannot see who supplied the money.Federal campaign finance law does not use the term.
Political action committee definition
A political action committee, or PAC, is a group that raises and spends money to support or oppose candidates for federal office. A PAC must register with the Federal Election Commission (FEC) within 10 days after its contributions or spending exceed $1,000 in a calendar year.The FEC counted 8,816 federal PACs in reports covering January 1, 2025 through March 31, 2026. Those PACs raised $6.3 billion, spent $4.8 billion, and gave $274.5 million to federal candidates.How do political action committees work?Every political action committee is either a separate segregated fund or a nonconnected committee. The difference is who they can ask for money.Separate segregated funds are established and administered by corporations, labor unions, membership organizations, or trade associations. They can solicit contributions only from individuals associated with the sponsoring organization.Nonconnected committees have no sponsoring organization, so they can solicit contributions from the general public.PACs file regular reports with the FEC disclosing what they raise and spend.What are the contribution limits for PACs?A PAC that has qualified as a multicandidate committee can give a federal candidate $5,000 per election. A PAC that has not qualified can give $3,500 per election in the 2025-2026 cycle, and that limit is adjusted for inflation in odd-numbered years.To qualify as a multicandidate committee, a PAC must be registered with the FEC for at least six months, receive contributions from at least 51 people, and contribute to at least five federal candidates.Money going into a PAC is capped too. Individuals, party committees, other PACs, and candidates' own campaign committees can each give a PAC $5,000 per year. That is an annual cap, not a per-election one.Corporations and labor unions cannot contribute to a PAC from their general treasury funds. They can instead establish a separate segregated fund.What is the difference between a PAC and a super PAC?Super PACs are one type of nonconnected committee. The FEC calls them independent expenditure-only political committees, and they can accept unlimited contributions from individuals, corporations, labor unions, and other PACs. Unlike other PACs, they cannot give money to candidates.Super PACs pay for independent expenditures instead. An independent expenditure is a communication that urges the election or defeat of a clearly identified candidate. It cannot be made in cooperation with that candidate or with a political party.The FEC counted 2,236 super PACs through March 31, 2026.
Discretionary spending definition
Discretionary spending funds federal agency operations and programs, with Congress setting funding levels each year through appropriations.
Ballot initiative definition
A ballot initiative is a proposed law or constitutional amendment that voters place on the ballot by gathering petition signatures. Voters then approve or reject it in an election. Each state’s constitution decides whether its voters can use initiatives, and sets the rules for how they work. Ballot initiatives differ from proposed laws that legislatures put on ballots. Initiatives change state law, not federal law.
Referendum definition
A referendum is a vote in which the public approves or rejects a law. Voters may be asked to accept a measure their legislature has passed, or to overturn a law already on the books. These votes take place at the state and local levels.Does the US have national referendums?No. The Constitution gives all federal lawmaking power to Congress, so voters do not decide laws directly. They elect the senators and representatives who write them.Amending the Constitution does not involve a national vote either. Congress proposes an amendment, and three-fourths of the states must ratify it through their legislatures or state conventions for it to take effect. Only one amendment has been ratified by state conventions: the 21st, in 1933.How does a referendum work?In a referendum, voters approve or reject one specific measure on a ballot. A measure reaches the ballot in one of two ways: lawmakers send it to voters, or voters petition to overturn a law the legislature already passed. Each state sets its own rules through its constitution and election laws, so deadlines, signature counts, and vote thresholds differ from state to state.For example, in California, voters approve a statewide ballot measure by majority vote.In Ohio, voters cannot challenge tax levies, spending for routine state expenses, or emergency laws by referendum.And in Maine, a referendum to overturn a law is called a people’s veto.What is a legislative referendum?In a legislative referendum, lawmakers send a measure to the voters rather than deciding it themselves. Washington state calls these referendum bills, proposed laws that the state legislature refers to the voters.Cities hold referendums too. In Ohio, voters can petition for a referendum on a city ordinance, and the ordinance does not take effect unless a majority of voters approve it.What is a popular referendum?A popular referendum starts with voters instead. In Washington, a registered voter can file a referendum measure that puts a recently passed law on the ballot before it takes effect. The petition to put it on the ballot needs signatures equal to 4% of the votes cast for governor in the last regular gubernatorial election. It must be filed within 90 days of the legislature's final adjournment.
Presidential cabinet definition
The presidential cabinet is an advisory body made up of the heads of the 15 executive departments, such as the Department of State and the Department of Homeland Security. The president nominates cabinet members, and the Senate votes on whether to confirm them.Congress creates each executive department by law and assigns it the work it carries out. The Department of Veterans Affairs, for example, runs health care and benefits programs for veterans.
White House staff definition
The White House staff is the group of employees who work directly for the president in the White House Office, a division of the Executive Office of the President. Staff members advise the president, carry out the daily work of the office, and handle communication with Congress, federal agencies, the press, and the public.President Franklin D. Roosevelt created the Executive Office of the President in 1939. That September, Executive Order 8248 established the White House Office as one of its divisions.Federal law lets the president appoint White House Office employees without following the rules that cover most other federal hiring. Senate confirmation is required for some advisers in the Executive Office of the President, such as the director of the Office of Management and Budget. Most are appointed at the president’s discretion.
Mandatory spending definition
Mandatory spending, also called direct spending, is federal spending set by the laws that create programs rather than by the yearly appropriations process. For programs that fall under mandatory spending, the law either sets a funding amount or sets the eligibility rules and benefit formulas that decide what the government pays. Mandatory program spending is typically permanent, so Congress does not have to set their spending levels each year.To change what a mandatory program costs or who it benefits, Congress has to change the law behind it.
Filibuster definition
A filibuster is a Senate practice in which one or more senators prolong debate to delay or prevent a vote on a bill, amendment, or nomination. Because debate in the Senate is generally unlimited, senators may continue debate (or signal intent to do so) to block final consideration unless the Senate votes to end debate.The filibuster is not mentioned in the Constitution but developed as a result of the Senate’s rules allowing unlimited debate.
Omnibus bill definition
An omnibus bill is a single piece of legislation that combines multiple, often unrelated measures into one legislative vehicle. Lawmakers commonly use these bills in the appropriations process to consolidate several funding bills into a single package.Sometimes this happens as funding deadlines loom in order to prevent a government shutdown. Omnibus bills condense multiple pieces of legislation into one vote. Due to their length and complexity, these bills may be more difficult to review in full prior to final passage.
Legislative agenda definition
A legislative agenda is the set of policy priorities, proposals, or bills that lawmakers and congressional leaders plan to consider during a legislative session. The legislative agenda determines which issues get attention in hearings, debate, and floor votes, shaping the direction of public policy.Congress receives far more proposals than it can act on, and the agenda determines which measures receive formal legislative consideration. The legislative agenda develops through several stages of the legislative process, including bill introduction, committee consideration, and floor scheduling. Legislative agendas may reflect party priorities, campaign promises, and the major policy goals of elected officials. They may also shift in response to changing political conditions, public opinion, or emerging national issues.
Committee jurisdiction definition
A congressional committee's jurisdiction is the set of subject areas it has authority over. Jurisdiction determines whether a committee has the authority to review a bill, hold hearings on it, and send it to the full House or Senate for consideration.Committees in the House of Representatives and the Senate are granted jurisdiction through the chambers’ rules, which assign committee policy areas and legislative responsibilities. These rules determine which committee considers a bill before it reaches the floor. Committee jurisdiction organizes the legislative process and allows members to develop expertise in specific subjects.
Whip count definition
A whip count is an informal tally congressional leadership conducts to gauge how party members plan to vote on upcoming legislation, amendments, or procedural motions. Whip counts are typically organized by the party whip and their staff, who contact party members to see whether they support or oppose a proposal. Whip counts work as an informal internal survey before an important vote, helping party leaders determine whether they have enough votes to pass a piece of legislation before bringing it to the floor.
Legislative counsel definition
A legislative counsel is a nonpartisan attorney who assists members of Congress and congressional committees by drafting legislation and providing legal guidance on the form and structure of bills, resolutions, and amendments. They translate policy ideas into precise statutory language to ensure that the proposed legislation is clear, internally consistent, and aligned with existing federal law.They’re typically experienced attorneys with expertise in statutory drafting, legislative procedure, and public law and operate on a nonpartisan and confidential basis, assisting members of both parties.
Joint resolution definition
A joint resolution is a particular type of Congressional measure that must pass in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. In most cases, it follows the same legislative process as a bill and then becomes law with the same force as a standard bill.Joint resolutions are typically used for a narrow set of purposes: stopgap government funding, authorizing military force, overturning federal agency rules, and proposing Constitutional amendments. They originate in either chamber; they’re designated H.J.Res. when introduced in the House and S.J.Res. in the Senate.
Runoff election definition
A runoff election, also called a two-round election, is a second, follow-up election held when no one wins a congressional election outright. States usually hold runoffs when no candidate receives a majority (more than 50% of the votes) in the first election. The top two vote-getters from the first election compete in the runoff.The Constitution lets states set the time, place, and manner of their congressional elections, so runoff rules for US Senate and US House races differ by state.