Our Government has a few tools by which it carries out its mission:
Our Government performs the above activities in an effort to maintain or improve various key metrics related to American life.
Tax revenue3
For most taxes, Congress does not need to pass a new law every year authorizing the IRS to collect. They continue to operate as established unless Congress chooses to change the law. Some changes to tax laws can occur in a given year because Congress previously enacted a timeline for the law to change at some specified point in time. For example, Congress often enacts sunset provisions on certain tax breaks or new programs to take effect at some date in the future. That is, they are scheduled to change unless Congress acts again.
Federal individual income tax
The individual income tax is the largest source of revenue for the federal government and the single biggest tax paid by Americans (in aggregate). The federal individual income tax is levied on most sources of individual income with some notable exceptions, such as employer-provided health insurance premiums. Taxes are levied based on a progressive rate structure, with rates that range from 10% to 39.6% for the periods presented in this report and that increase as taxable income increases. People who file tax returns may qualify for some tax credits, such as the child tax credit, the earned income tax credit, and education tax credits, among others. Some credits are refundable, meaning that a filer may receive a refund that is larger than the amount of income tax withheld.
Beginning in 2013, an additional income tax is levied on individuals – the Unearned Income Medicare Contribution Tax, which provides for a 3.8% tax on net investment income for those whose earnings exceed certain levels. This provision was enacted as part of the Affordable Care Act and went into effect January 1, 2013. Despite its name, this tax revenue is not legally earmarked to the Medicare trust funds; rather, it is used for general government purposes. In this report, this tax is included in individual income tax revenue.
On December 22, 2017, the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA) became law. Effective January 1, 2018, the TCJA reduces the top individual income tax rate from 39.6% to 37%, changes the income tax brackets associated with each tax rate, increases the child tax credit, and provides for a 20% deduction of qualified business income and certain dividends for individuals.
Federal corporate income tax
The federal corporate income tax is levied on the net incomes of C-corporations (corporations recognized as separate taxpaying entities). C-corporations are allowed deductions for normal business expenditures that are typical of accounting for net income as well as some special provisions inserted by Congress. The federal statutory corporate income tax rate in the US was 35% until January 1, 2018. For companies headquartered in the US that earn income from overseas sources, such income was taxed only when repatriated back to the US. Effective January 1, 2018, the TCJA reduces the federal statutory income tax rate from 35% to 21%. The TCJA also requires foreign income of US businesses to be taxed at 21% but provides one-time reduced tax rates for foreign profits accumulated in the form liquid assets (15.5% tax rate) and illiquid assets (8% tax rate) if the assets are brought to the US.
Not all business profits are subject to the corporate income tax. Income derived from S-corporations (closely-held corporations), partnerships, sole proprietorships, and real estate investment trusts is only subject to tax under the federal individual income tax.
Federal payroll taxes
Federal payroll taxes to finance Social Security and Medicare are levied on both employees and employers.
Social Security tax revenues
Social Security tax revenues are earmarked for the Social Security Trust Fund, which funds both Old-Age Survivors Insurance (OASI) and Disability Insurance (DI). See discussion of OASI and DI in Major Government Programs, Social Security below. Individuals and employers each pay a 6.2% tax (5.015% for OASI and 1.185% for DI) on payrolls (wages and salaries and self-employment income) up to the payroll tax cap, for a total of 12.4%. Beyond the payroll tax cap, there is no Social Security tax. In tax year 2020, the payroll tax cap was $137,700 per employee. In the case of self-employed individuals, a tax equal to the employee plus the employer portion (12.4%) is levied.
Medicare tax revenues
Medicare tax revenues are earmarked to the Hospital Insurance Trust Fund portion of Medicare (HI Trust Fund). Employees and employers each pay a 1.45% tax on payrolls (wages and salaries) with no cap. People who are self-employed pay both the employee and the employer portion for a total of 2.9%. In addition, beginning in 2013, individuals pay an additional 0.9% Medicare tax on their wages, compensation, or self-employment income exceeding $200,000 for single filers ($250,000 for married filing jointly, $125,000 for married filing separately).
Unemployment tax revenues
Together with state unemployment tax systems, the Federal Unemployment Tax Act (FUTA) tax provides funds to pay unemployment compensation to workers who have lost their jobs. Only employers pay a FUTA tax, and most pay both a federal and a state unemployment tax. Generally, employers can take a credit against FUTA tax amounts they have paid to state unemployment funds. For 2020, the FUTA tax rate is 6% on the first $7,000 paid to each employee as wages during the year.
Other taxes
The federal government levies other taxes including:
Non-tax revenue
Federal non-tax revenue comprises mainly earnings of the Federal Reserve and sales of government resources.
Federal Reserve earnings
The residual earnings of each of the 12 Federal Reserve member banks are distributed to the Treasury after providing for the costs of operations, payment of dividends, and transfers to surplus (the amount necessary to equate surplus with capital paid-in, limited to $6,825,000,000).4 See additional discussion of the Federal Reserve in Other related entities, The Federal Reserve below.
Sales of government resources
The largest portion of revenue from sales of government resources is made up of rents and royalties on leases of oil, gas, and other marine minerals on the outer continental shelf. Our Government also receives proceeds from auctions of licenses for the rights to transmit signals over the electromagnetic spectrum.
Receipts that offset expenses
Our Government records money collected in one of two ways, either as revenue or as a reduction of expenditures. Those recorded as revenue are discussed under Tax revenue and Non-tax revenue above. Those recorded as reductions of expenditures derive mainly from business-like transactions with the public. Unlike revenues, which are derived from our Government’s exercise of its sovereign power, these collections arise primarily from voluntary payments from the public for goods or services provided by our Government. The collections are classified as offsets to government outlays for the cost of producing, marketing, and delivering the goods or services for sale. These activities include the sale of postage stamps, land, timber, electricity, and services to the public (e.g. admission to national parks), as well as premiums for healthcare benefits (e.g. Medicare Parts B and D).
We have shown all significant offsetting amounts that are known to us in Note 24 – Offsetting amounts in Part II, Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, Notes to financial statements within this annual report. Certain amounts have already been offset in the federal financial data before we sourced it and therefore the related gross amounts are not available to us for disclosure in Note 24 – Offsetting amounts.
To understand federal authority to spend money, the first step is to divide spending laws into two different categories: those that do not require action every year (mandatory, generally) and those that do (discretionary, generally).
Mandatory spending
For most mandatory spending programs, as with most taxes, Congress does not need to pass a new law every year authorizing major programs like Medicare and Social Security to continue sending out checks. They continue to run as established unless Congress chooses to change the law. Some changes to mandatory spending programs can occur in a given year because Congress previously enacted a timeline for the law to change at some specified point in time.
For mandatory spending programs, unlike discretionary programs which are discussed next, it is important to note that the amount to be spent is unknown at the beginning of the year. For example, the amount that is spent on SNAP (food stamps) or unemployment insurance in a given year depends on the number of people who qualify based upon the program’s rules and then decide to make claims for benefits. This will vary depending on conditions such as inflation, economic growth, and shifting demographics, among other factors. There is no upper limit in the law on how much can be spent on these mandatory programs, and in fiscal year 2018, they accounted for approximately 70% of outlays (including interest on federal debt), limiting the flexibility of Congress and the president to decide spending and policy priorities.
Discretionary spending
For discretionary spending, Congress must first create a program and then fund it on a regular basis; otherwise, the program ceases to exist. The funding of discretionary programs is called the appropriations process. Appropriations passed by Congress and signed into law by the president grant agencies budget authority to spend some fixed amount of money for a specific purpose over a specified period (one year to indefinitely, with the majority within three years). When those funds are exhausted, no more money can be spent for that purpose by that department unless Congress acts again.
Tax revenue
Like the federal government, state governments do not need to pass a new law every year authorizing the state departments of revenue to collect. They continue to run as established until changes are approved, generally either through committee review followed by approval by the governor or a vote by the citizens. Certain states have constitutional restrictions on their authority to tax. For example, seven states have no individual income tax, while other states have caps on the taxes that can be levied, such as Proposition 13 in California, which limits real property taxes in California. Some changes to tax laws can occur in a given year because a state government previously enacted a timeline for the law to change at some specified point in time.
A local government’s authority to tax must be granted to it by its state government.
State and local individual income tax
Individual income taxes are levied by most states with the tax base generally defined by federal income tax regulations (with some exceptions). State income tax rates are generally lower and less progressive than the federal income tax. Seven states do not have an individual income tax, while the other states differ in terms of their individual income tax rate levels and the degree of progressivity. The Wisconsin Legislative Fiscal Bureau published an informational paper in 2021, which reports that for tax year 2019: “The highest marginal tax rate used by a state was 12.3% in California. Hawaii had the greatest number of tax brackets at 12. Ten states imposed a single (flat) tax rate on all taxable income, while one state (Massachusetts) had two flat tax rates, each of which applied to different types of income.”5 You can see more detail by state at the source provided.
With respect to the impact of combined state and local government taxation of individual income, the government of the District of Columbia performs a nationwide study of the tax burdens of 51 US cities. For 2019, it found: “In twenty-four of the cities that are in states that levy an income tax, the percentage of income paid in individual income taxes by the family earning $25,000 per year is zero percent (or less than zero due to refundable credits). Notably, residents of Burlington, Vermont would receive a refund of $2,666, making it the lowest income tax burden on a family earning $25,000 per year. The highest income tax burden at this lower income level is $1,736, or 6.94% in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and next at $1,106, or 4.4% in Louisville, Kentucky. At the $150,000 income level, the burden ranges from a low of $1,923, or 1.3% of income in Fargo, North Dakota, to $11,249, or 7.5% in New York City, New York. (New Hampshire and Tennessee income taxes are applicable only to interest and dividend income and the exemptions are high enough to eliminate individual income taxes at all income levels used in the study).” 6
State and local corporate income tax
Most states levy corporate income taxes that are significantly lower than federal income taxes. State corporate income taxes vary in two key dimensions: (1) rates and (2) apportionment factors. In 2019, Iowa, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Illinois, Alaska, and New Jersey had the highest statutory corporate income tax rates, each at 9% or higher. Because major corporations operate across state lines, each must apportion its net income to each state. However, states have different rules as to how companies must apportion their income between states. Generally, there are three factors whose weights differ across states, with weight attributed to a state based on: property held in the state, payroll paid to employees in the state, and sales to customers in the state.
Property taxes
Local governments levy property taxes on real estate and business property (and in some states, on personal property such as automobiles). Nationally, for owner-occupied housing, the typical real estate tax rate paid is approximately 1% of the home value. In 2019, for the largest city in each state as a group, the median effective residential property tax rate was 1.40%, while the unweighted average rate was 1.69%. These tax rates vary widely by city and state. In 2019, the highest effective residential property tax rate, among the largest cities in each state, was in Bridgeport, CT at 4.27%, while the lowest was in Honolulu, HI at 0.35%.
General sales taxes
General sales taxes, or taxes that are applied at a consistent rate to purchases of all non-exempted items, are a key source of revenue for most states and many localities. Illinois, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Colorado, and Arizona have the highest combined state and local general sales tax rates. New Hampshire, Alaska, Delaware, Oregon, and Montana have no statewide general sales tax. In most states, items such as food and medical products are either exempt from general sales taxes or are taxed at a lower rate. Services such as housing, healthcare, and education are generally exempt. Sales taxes tend to be regressive, meaning that low-income households tend to pay a higher percentage of their income in sales taxes than high-income households. However, because of the exemptions or preferential treatment for many household necessities in most general sales taxes, sales taxes are not as regressive as a broad-based consumption tax. Furthermore, goods and services provided by our Government to low-income households, such as food assistance benefits, those transactions are tax exempt.
Other taxes
State governments levy other taxes including:
Non-tax revenue
State non-tax revenue comprises mainly earnings and losses on investments, mostly investments of Public Employee Retirement Systems assets. State non-tax revenue also includes: proceeds from sales of government resources, including rents and royalties primarily from commercial activity on state land such as leasing of state-owned office buildings and mineral extraction on state-owned land; donations to our Government; and fines and forfeitures.
State budgets are approved anew each year. Certain items carry over but must be reauthorized as a part of the full budget. According to a survey by the National Association of State Budget Officers (NASBO), 30 states report using an annual budget cycle and 20 states report using a biennial budget cycle, while in practice a number use a combination of annual and biennial budgeting.
The state budget cycle typically begins with the state budget office providing guidance, including financial assumptions such as spending targets, inflation, and the governor’s priorities, to state agencies. Agencies submit requests back to the state budget office. After review and analysis of the agencies’ budget requests, the budget office staff make recommendations to the governor on the overall budget proposal. The governor reviews the recommendations and often provides additional direction, which the budget office uses to compile the governor’s proposed budget. The governor then usually presents the proposed budget to the legislature for review. Typically, each chamber of the legislature approves its own version of the budget, and a conference committee is appointed to resolve the differences between the two versions.
Once the legislature passes the budget, generally the governor must sign it in order for it to become law. If the governor does not approve of the budget, he or she may veto the bill(s). The legislature generally has the power to override the governor’s veto, though this usually requires a super-majority vote.
According to NASBO, “The governor is required to submit a balanced budget in 44 states, the legislature is required to enact a balanced budget in 41 states, and the budget signed by the governor is required to be balanced in 40 states. Eleven states indicated that they are permitted to carry over a budget deficit in certain conditions.”
A local government’s authority to spend must be granted to it by its state government.